Home  ›  The National Institute for Media and the Family

The National Institute for Media and the Family

Written By Saturday, March 5, 2022 Add Comment Edit

US government medical research bureau

National Institutes of Health (NIH)
NIH Master Logo Vertical 2Color.png

National Institutes of Health logo
NIH Clinical Research Center aerial.jpg
Aerial photo of the NIH Mark O. Hatfield Clinical Research Middle, Bethesda, Maryland
Agency overview
Formed August 1887; 134 years agone  (1887-08)
Preceding agency
  • Hygienic Laboratory
Headquarters Bethesda, Maryland, U.S.
39°00′09″North 77°06′16″West  /  39.00250°N 77.10444°W  / 39.00250; -77.10444 Coordinates: 39°00′09″N 77°06′16″West  /  39.00250°Due north 77.10444°Westward  / 39.00250; -77.10444
Employees 20,262 (2012),[ane] including 6,000 research scientists (2019).[two]
Annual budget
  • Increase United states of america$42 billion (2020)[3]
  • Increase U.s.a.$39 billion (2019)[two]
  • Increase US$37 billion [iv] (2018)[v]
Agency executive
  • Lawrence A. Tabak, Acting Director
Parent bureau Department of Wellness & Human Services
Kid agencies
  • National Cancer Constitute
  • National Constitute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
  • National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
  • National Heart, Lung, and Blood Establish
  • National Library of Medicine
Website nih.gov

The National Institutes of Health (NIH ) is the main agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and public health research. It was founded in the late 1880s and is now part of the Us Department of Health and Human Services. The majority of NIH facilities are located in Bethesda, Maryland, and other nearby suburbs of the Washington metropolitan area, with other principal facilities in the Research Triangle Park in North Carolina and smaller satellite facilities located effectually the U.s.a.. The NIH conducts its own scientific research through its Intramural Enquiry Program (IRP) and provides major biomedical research funding to not-NIH enquiry facilities through its Extramural Enquiry Programme.

As of 2013[update], the Intramural Research Program (IRP) had 1,200 principal investigators and more than 4,000 postdoctoral fellows in basic, translational, and clinical inquiry, being the largest biomedical research establishment in the globe,[six] while, as of 2003, the extramural arm provided 28% of biomedical enquiry funding spent annually in the U.S., or about United states of america$26.4 billion.[7]

The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers of unlike biomedical disciplines and is responsible for many scientific accomplishments, including the discovery of fluoride to foreclose tooth disuse, the use of lithium to manage bipolar disorder, and the creation of vaccines against hepatitis, Haemophilus influenzae (HIB), and human papillomavirus (HPV).[8]

In 2019, the NIH was ranked number two in the world, behind Harvard University, for biomedical sciences in the Nature Alphabetize, which measured the largest contributors to papers published in a subset of leading journals from 2015 to 2018.[9] [10]

History [edit]

Origins [edit]

NIH campus in Bethesda, Maryland, in 1945

In 1887, a laboratory for the written report of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established within the Marine Hospital Service, which at the time was expanding its functions beyond the system of Marine Hospitals into quarantine and inquiry programs. It was initially located at the New York Marine Hospital on Staten Island.[12] [13] [14] In 1891, it moved to the height floor of the Butler Building in Washington, D.C. In 1904, information technology moved again to a new campus at the Quondam Naval Observatory, which grew to include five major buildings.[15]

In 1901, the Division of Scientific Research was formed, which included the Hygienic Laboratory besides as other research offices of the Marine Hospital Service.[16] In 1912, the Marine Hospital Service became the Public Health Service (PHS).[14] In 1922, PHS established a Special Cancer Investigations laboratory at Harvard Medical School. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities.[14]

In 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Establish of Health by the Ransdell Human activity, and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings at the Quondam Naval Observatory campus.[14] In 1937, NIH captivated the rest of the Sectionalisation of Scientific Inquiry, of which it was formerly function.[16] [17]

In 1938, NIH moved to its current campus in Bethesda, Maryland.[fourteen] Over the next few decades, Congress would markedly increase funding of the NIH, and various institutes and centers within the NIH were created for specific research programs.[14] In 1944, the Public Wellness Service Act was approved, and the National Cancer Establish became a division of NIH. In 1948, the name changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health.

Later history [edit]

In the 1960s, virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital.[eighteen] : 130 When three doctors resigned afterward refusing to inject patients without their consent, the experiment gained considerable media attending.[18] : 133 The NIH was a major source of funding for Southam'due south research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation.[18] : 135 Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions, the NIH discovered that the majority of them did not protect the rights of human subjects. From so on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve whatsoever enquiry proposals involving human experimentation with review boards.[18] : 135

In 1967, the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart illness, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White Firm for increased federal funding in lodge to increase research and the speed with which health benefits could be brought to the people. An advisory committee was formed to oversee the further evolution of the NIH and its research programs. By 1971 cancer enquiry was in full force and President Nixon signed the National Cancer Act, initiating a National Cancer Program, President's Cancer Panel, National Cancer Advisory Board, and xv new enquiry, preparation, and demonstration centers.[19]

Funding for the NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress, serving as a proxy for the political currents of the time. In 1992, the NIH encompassed nearly i percentage of the federal government's operating budget and controlled more than fifty percent of all funding for health research, and 85 percent of all funding for health studies in universities.[20] While government funding for inquiry in other disciplines has been increasing at a rate similar to inflation since the 1970s, research funding for the NIH nearly tripled through the 1990s and early 2000s, but has remained relatively stagnant since then.[21]

Past the 1990s, the NIH commission focus had shifted to Dna research and launched the Human Genome Projection.[22]

Leadership [edit]

The NIH Function of the Director is the primal office responsible for setting policy for NIH, and for planning, managing, and coordinating the programs and activities of all NIH components. The NIH Manager plays an active role in shaping the bureau'due south activities and outlook. The Director is responsible for providing leadership to the Institutes and Centers by identifying needs and opportunities, particularly in efforts involving multiple Institutes.[23] Within the Director'south Role is the Division of Program Coordination, Planning and Strategic Initiatives with 12 divisions including:

  • Part of AIDS Research
  • Office of Research on Women's Health
  • Office of Disease Prevention
  • Sexual and Gender Minority Inquiry Office
  • Tribal Health Inquiry Office
  • Office of Program Evaluation and Performance

The Agency Intramural Enquiry Integrity Officer "is directly responsible for overseeing the resolution of all research misconduct allegations involving intramural research, and for promoting research integrity within the NIH Office of Intramural Research (OIR)."[24] There is a Sectionalisation of Extramural Activities, which has its own Director.[25] The Function of Ethics has its own Managing director,[26] as does the Office of Global Research.[27]

Locations and campuses [edit]

Intramural enquiry is primarily conducted at the main campus in Bethesda, Maryland, and Rockville, Maryland, and the surrounding communities.

Clinical Research Eye at NIH

Master Lobby Wall at the Clinical Inquiry Middle at NIH

Looking at the Main Entrance hall at the Clinical Research Heart at NIH

Looking at the Chief Lobby at the Clinical Research Middle at NIH

The Bayview Campus in Baltimore, Maryland houses the research programs of the National Institute on Aging, National Plant on Drug Abuse, and National Human being Genome Research Establish with near 1,000 scientists and support staff.[28] The Frederick National Laboratory in Frederick, Doc and the nearby Riverside Research Park, houses many components of the National Cancer Plant, including the Center for Cancer Research, Office of Scientific Operations, Direction Operations Support Branch, the division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and the sectionalisation of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis.[29]

The National Found of Environmental Health Sciences is located in the Research Triangle region of Northward Carolina.

Other ICs have satellite locations in addition to operations at the primary campus. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases maintains its Rocky Mount Labs in Hamilton, Montana,[30] with an emphasis on BSL3 and BSL4 laboratory piece of work. NIDDK operates the Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Enquiry Branch in Phoenix, Arizona.

Research [edit]

Clinical Middle – Edifice x

As of 2017, 153 scientists receiving financial back up from the NIH take been awarded a Nobel Prize and 195 have been awarded a Lasker Award.[31]

Intramural and extramural research [edit]

NIH devotes 10% of its funding to research inside its own facilities (intramural research), and gives >80% of its funding in research grants to extramural (outside) researchers.[2] Of this extramural funding, a certain percent (2.viii% in 2014) must be granted to small businesses under the SBIR/STTR programme.[32] As of 2011[update], the extramural funding consisted of nigh fifty,000 grants to more than 325,000 researchers at more 3000 institutions.[33] By 2018[update], this charge per unit of granting remained reasonably steady, at 47,000 grants to ii,700 organizations.[2] In FY 2010[update], NIH spent US$ten.7bn (not including temporary funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Human action of 2009) on clinical inquiry, US$7.4bn on genetics-related enquiry, United states of america$6.0bn on prevention research, United states$5.8bn on cancer, and US$five.7bn on biotechnology.[34]

Public Access Policy [edit]

In 2008 a Congressional mandate called for investigators funded past the NIH to submit an electronic version of their final manuscripts to the National Library of Medicine'south inquiry repository, PubMed Key (PMC), no after than 12 months afterward the official date of publication.[35] The NIH Public Access Policy was the offset public access mandate for a U.S. public funding bureau.[36]

NIH Interagency Pain Inquiry Coordinating Commission [edit]

On February 13, 2012, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) appear a new grouping of individuals assigned to research pain. This committee is composed of researchers from unlike organizations and will focus to "coordinate pain enquiry activities across the federal regime with the goals of stimulating hurting research collaboration… and providing an important avenue for public interest" ("Members of new", 2012). With a committee such as this enquiry will not be conducted by each individual organisation or person just instead a collaborating grouping which will increase the information available. With this hopefully more pain management volition exist available including techniques for arthritis sufferers.[37] In 2020 Beth Darnall, American scientist and pain psychologist, was appointed as scientific fellow member of the grouping.

Economic return [edit]

In 2000, the Joint Economical Committee of Congress reported NIH enquiry, which was funded at $16 billion a yr in 2000, that some econometric studies had given a rate of render of 25 to xl percentage per yr by reducing the economic cost of illness in the United states. It found that of the 21 drugs with the highest therapeutic touch on on social club introduced between 1965 and 1992, public funding was "instrumental" for 15.[38] As of 2011 NIH-supported inquiry helped to discover 153 new FDA-approved drugs, vaccines, and new indications for drugs in the 40 years prior.[39] 1 study found NIH funding aided either straight or indirectly in developing the drugs or drug targets for all of the 210 FDA-approved drugs from 2010 to 2016.[twoscore] In 2015, Pierre Azoulay et al. estimated $10 meg invested in research generated two to three new patents.[41]

Notable discoveries and developments [edit]

Since its inception, the NIH intramural research program has been a source of many pivotal scientific and medical discoveries. Some of these include:

  • 1908: George W. McCoy's discovery that rodents were a reservoir of bubonic plague.
  • 1911: George West. McCoy, Charles W. Chapin, William B. Wherry, and B. H. Lamb described the previously unknown tularemia.
  • 1924: Roscoe R. Spencer and Ralph R. Parker developed a vaccine against Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
  • 1930: Sanford 1000. Rosenthal developed a treatment for mercury poisoning used widely before the evolution of dimercaptoethanol.
  • 1943: Wilton R. Earle pioneered the cell culture process and published a paper describing the production of malignancy in vitro, Katherine K. Sanford developed the offset clone from an isolated cancer prison cell, and Virginia J. Evans devised a medium that supported growth of cells in vitro.
  • 1940s–1950s: Bernard Horecker and colleagues described the pentose phosphate pathway.
  • 1950s: Julius Axelrod discovered a new course of enzymes, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, a fundamental of drug metabolism.
  • 1950: Earl Stadtman discovered phosphotransacetylose, elucidating the role of acetyl CoA in fatty acrid metabolism.
  • 1960s: Discovered the outset human dull virus disease, kuru, which is a degenerative, fatal infection of the key nervous system. This discovery of a new mechanism for infectious diseases revolutionized thinking in microbiology and neurology.
  • 1960s: Defined the mechanisms that regulate noradrenaline, 1 of the nearly of import neurotransmitters in the encephalon.
  • 1960s: Adult the first licensed rubella vaccine and the first test for rubella antibodies for large scale testing.
  • 1960s: Adult an effective combination drug regimen for Hodgkin'due south lymphoma.
  • 1960s: Discovery that molar decay is caused by leaner.
  • 1970s: Developed the analysis for human chorionic gonadotropin that evolved into the dwelling house pregnancy tests.
  • 1970s: Described the hormonal cycle involved in menstruation.
  • 1980s: Determined the consummate structure of the IgE receptor that is involved in allergic reactions.
  • 1990s: Commencement trial of factor therapy in humans.

NIH Toolbox [edit]

In September 2006, the NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Inquiry started a contract for the NIH Toolbox for the Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function to develop a set of state-of-the-art measurement tools to enhance collection of data in big cohort studies. Scientists from more than 100 institutions nationwide contributed. In September 2012, the NIH Toolbox was rolled out to the research customs. NIH Toolbox assessments are based, where possible, on Item Response Theory and adjusted for testing by computer.[ citation needed ]

Coronavirus vaccine [edit]

The NIH partnered with Moderna in 2020 during the COVID-nineteen pandemic to develop a vaccine. The final phase of testing began on July 27 with upwardly to 30,000 volunteers assigned to 1 of two groups—one receiving the mRNA-1273 vaccine and the other receiving salt h2o injections—and continued until in that location had been approximately 100 cases of COVID-19 among the participants.[42] [43]

Collaboration with Wuhan Institute of Virology [edit]

Following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, NIH-funded EcoHealth Alliance has been the discipline of controversy and increased scrutiny due to its ties to the Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV)—which has been at the centre of speculation since early 2020 that SARS-CoV-ii may accept escaped in a lab incident.[44] [45] [46] [47] [48] Nether political force per unit area, the NIH withdrew funding to EcoHealth Alliance in July 2020.[49]

Funding [edit]

Budget and politics [edit]

Historical NIH budget[fifty]
Year Budget (millions)
1938 0.v
1940 0.7
1945 2.8
1950 52.7
1955 81.two
1960 399.iv
1965 959.2
1970 1,061.0
1975 2,092.9
1980 iii,428.9
1985 5,149.5
1990 7,567.4
1995 eleven,299.5
2000 17,840.5
2005 28,594.4
2010 31,238.0
2015 xxx,311.iv
2016 32,311.4
2017 34,300.9
2018 37,311.3
2019 39,000.0
2020 42,000.0

To allocate funds, the NIH must commencement obtain its upkeep from Congress. This process begins with institute and center (IC) leaders collaborating with scientists to determine the most important and promising research areas within their fields. IC leaders discuss research areas with NIH direction who then develops a upkeep request for standing projects, new research proposals, and new initiatives from the Director. NIH submits its budget request to the Department of Wellness and Human Services (HHS), and the HHS considers this asking every bit a portion of its upkeep. Many adjustments and appeals occur between NIH and HHS earlier the bureau submits NIH's budget request to the Role of Management and Upkeep (OMB). OMB determines what amounts and research areas are approved for incorporation into the President's last budget. The President and then sends NIH's upkeep request to Congress in February for the next fiscal year'south allocations.[51] The Firm and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees deliberate and past fall, Congress usually appropriates funding. This process takes approximately 18 months before the NIH can allocate whatever actual funds.[52]

When a regime shutdown occurs, the NIH continues to treat people who are already enrolled in clinical trials, but does not showtime any new clinical trials and does not admit new patients who are not already enrolled in a clinical trial, except for the most critically sick, as adamant past the NIH Director.[53] [54] [55] [56]

Historical funding [edit]

Over the last century, the responsibleness to allocate funding has shifted from the OD and Informational Committee to the individual ICs and Congress increasingly set apart funding for item causes. In the 1970s, Congress began to earmark funds specifically for cancer inquiry, and in the 1980s there was a significant amount allocated for AIDS/HIV enquiry.[57]

Funding for the NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress, serving every bit a proxy for the political currents of the time. During the 1980s, President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for enquiry, just to see Congress partly restore funding. The political contention over NIH funding slowed the nation'southward response to the AIDS epidemic; while AIDS was reported in newspaper articles from 1981, no funding was provided for research on the disease. In 1984 National Cancer Establish scientists found implications that "variants of a human cancer virus called HTLV-III are the primary cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)," a new epidemic that gripped the nation.[58]

In 1992, the NIH encompassed almost ane percent of the federal government'south operating upkeep and controlled more 50 percent of all funding for health inquiry and 85 percent of all funding for health studies in universities.[20] From 1993 to 2001 the NIH budget doubled. For a time, funding essentially remained flat, and for seven years following the financial crunch, the NIH upkeep struggled to keep upwardly with inflation.[59]

In 1999 Congress increased the NIH's budget by $two.3 billion[57] to $17.2 billion in 2000.[60] In 2009 Congress once again increased the NIH budget to $31 billion in 2010.[60] In 2017 and 2018, Congress passed laws with bipartisan support that essentially increasing appropriations for NIH, which was 37.3 billion dollars annually in FY2018.[61] [62]

[edit]

Researchers at universities or other institutions outside of NIH tin apply for inquiry projection grants (RPGs) from the NIH. There are numerous funding mechanisms for different project types (e.g., bones research, clinical research, etc.) and career stages (e.thousand., early career, postdoc fellowships, etc.). The NIH regularly bug "requests for applications" (RFAs), east.g., on specific programmatic priorities or timely medical problems (such as Zika virus research in early on 2016). In addition, researchers tin use for "investigator-initiated grants" whose subject area is determined by the scientist.

The total number of applicants has increased substantially, from about 60,000 investigators who had applied during the flow from 1999 to 2003 to slightly less than ninety,000 in who had applied during the period from 2011 to 2015.[63] Due to this, the "cumulative investigator rate", that is, the likelihood that unique investigators are funded over a 5-year window, has declined from 43% to 31%.[63]

R01 grants are the most common funding mechanism and include investigator-initiated projects. The roughly 27,000 to 29,000 R01 applications had a funding success of 17-xix% during 2012 though 2014. Similarly, the 13,000 to fourteen,000 R21 applications had a funding success of thirteen-14% during the same period.[64] In FY 2016, the total number of grant applications received by the NIH was 54,220, with approximately 19% being awarded funding.[65] Institutes have varying funding rates. The National Cancer Institute awarded funding to 12% of applicants, while the National Institute for General Medical Scientific discipline awarded funding to 30% of applicants.[65]

Funding criteria [edit]

NIH employs five broad decision criteria in its funding policy. First, ensure the highest quality of scientific enquiry past employing an arduous peer review process. Second, seize opportunities that have the greatest potential to yield new knowledge and that will lead to better prevention and treatment of affliction. 3rd, maintain a various research portfolio in lodge to capitalize on major discoveries in a variety of fields such as jail cell biology, genetics, physics, engineering science, and information science. Fourth, accost public health needs according to the illness burden (e.g., prevalence and bloodshed). And fifth, construct and support the scientific infrastructure (e.k., well-equipped laboratories and condom inquiry facilities) necessary to conduct inquiry.[66]

Advisory committee members propose the institute on policy and procedures affecting the external research programs and provide a second level of review for all grant and cooperative understanding applications considered past the Plant for funding.[67]

Gender and sex bias [edit]

In 2014, it was announced that the NIH is directing scientists to perform their experiments with both female person and male animals, or cells derived from females as well as males if they are studying prison cell cultures, and that the NIH would take the balance of each report design into consideration when awarding grants.[68] The announcement as well stated that this rule would probably non use when studying sexual activity-specific diseases (for example, ovarian or testicular cancer).[68]

Stakeholders [edit]

General public [edit]

One of the goals of the NIH is to "expand the base in medical and associated sciences in society to ensure a continued high render on the public investment in research."[69] Taxpayer dollars funding NIH are from the taxpayers, making them the primary beneficiaries of advances in research. Thus, the general public is a key stakeholder in the decisions resulting from the NIH funding policy.[70] However, some in the full general public practise not feel their interests are being represented, and individuals have formed patient advocacy groups to correspond their ain interests.[71]

Extramural researchers and scientists [edit]

Important stakeholders of the NIH funding policy include researchers and scientists. Extramural researchers differ from intramural researchers in that they are not employed by the NIH merely may use for funding. Throughout the history of the NIH, the amount of funding received has increased, but the proportion to each IC remains relatively constant. The private ICs then decide who will receive the grant money and how much volition exist allotted.

Policy changes on who receives funding significantly bear upon researchers. For example, the NIH has recently attempted to approve more start-fourth dimension NIH R01 applicants or the enquiry grant applications of immature scientists. To encourage the participation of immature scientists, the application process has been shortened and made easier.[72] In addition, offset-fourth dimension applicants are being offered more funding for their enquiry grants than those who have received grants in the by.[73]

Commercial partnerships [edit]

In 2011 and 2012, the Department of Health and Human Services Office of Inspector General published a series of inspect reports revealing that throughout the financial years 2000–2010, institutes under the aegis of the NIH did not comply with the fourth dimension and amount requirements specified in appropriations statutes, in awarding federal contracts to commercial partners, committing the federal regime to tens of millions of dollars of expenditure ahead of cribbing of funds from Congress.[74]

Institutes and centers [edit]

The NIH is composed of 27 separate institutes and centers (ICs) that bear and coordinate inquiry across different disciplines of biomedical science. These are:

  • National Cancer Institute (NCI)
  • National Heart Institute (NEI)
  • National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
  • National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
  • National Constitute on Aging (NIA)
  • National Establish on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA)
  • National Constitute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)
  • National Constitute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Pare Diseases (NIAMS)
  • National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB)
  • National Establish of Child Health and Man Development (NICHD[75])
  • National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)
  • National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Inquiry (NIDCR)
  • National Plant of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)
  • National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)
  • National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS)
  • National Establish of Mental Health (NIMH)
  • National Found on Minority Health and Health Disparities (NIMHD)
  • National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)
  • National Institute of Nursing Enquiry (NINR)
  • National Library of Medicine (NLM)
  • Centre for Information technology (CIT)
  • Center for Scientific Review (CSR)
  • Fogarty International Center (FIC)
  • National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS)
  • National Centre for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH)
  • NIH Clinical Center (NIH CC)

In improver, the National Center for Research Resource operated from April 13, 1962, to December 23, 2011.

Previous directors [edit]

  • Joseph J. Kinyoun, served Baronial 1887 – April 30, 1899
  • Milton J. Rosenau, served May ane, 1899 – September 30, 1909
  • John F. Anderson, served October 1, 1909 – November 19, 1915
  • George Due west. McCoy, served November 20, 1915 – January 31, 1937
  • Lewis R. Thompson, served Feb 1, 1937 – Jan 31, 1942
  • Rolla Dyer, served February 1, 1942 – September xxx, 1950
  • William H. Sebrell, Jr, served October one, 1950 – July 31, 1955
  • James Augustine Shannon, served August 1, 1955 – Baronial 31, 1968
  • Robert Q. Marston, served September i, 1968 – January 21, 1973
  • Robert Stone, served May 29, 1973 – January 31, 1975
  • Donald S. Fredrickson, served July 1, 1975 – June thirty, 1981
  • James B. Wyngaarden, served April 29, 1982 – July 31, 1989
  • Bernadine Healy, served April ix, 1991 – June 30, 1993
  • Harold East. Varmus, served November 23, 1993 – Dec 31, 1999
  • Elias A. Zerhouni, served May 2, 2002 – October 31, 2008
  • Francis S. Collins, served Baronial 17, 2009 – December xix, 2021[76]

See as well [edit]

  • List of institutes and centers of the National Institutes of Health
  • Usa Public Health Service
  • National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale
  • Heads of International Inquiry Organizations
  • NIH Toolbox
  • National Plant of Food and Agronomics
  • Biomedical Engineering and Instrumentation Program (BEIP)

References [edit]

  1. ^ Baye, Rachel (Oct 17, 2012). "NIH plans to motility 3,000 employees to Bethesda". Washington Examiner. Archived from the original on March 17, 2018.
  2. ^ a b c d Philippidis, Alex (September 2019). "Superlative 25 NIH-Funded Institutions". Genetic Applied science & Biotechnology News. Vol. 39, no. ix. p. 16. Retrieved September 14, 2019.
  3. ^ "Final FY20 Appropriations: National Institutes of Wellness". www.aip.org. February 4, 2020.
  4. ^ "Trump, Congress approve largest U.Southward. research spending increment in a decade". Science AAAS. March 23, 2018. Archived from the original on March 23, 2018. Retrieved March 24, 2018.
  5. ^ "Appropriations (Department 2)". The NIH Almanac (Study). National Institutes of Health. February 25, 2011. Archived from the original on October 31, 2015. Retrieved August 26, 2011.
  6. ^ "Organization and Leadership | NIH Intramural Research Program". Irp.nih.gov. April 4, 2011. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013. Retrieved Apr 28, 2013.
  7. ^ Osterweil, Neil (September xx, 2005). "Medical Research Spending Doubled Over Past Decade". MedPage Today. Archived from the original on October sixteen, 2015. Retrieved September 15, 2015.
  8. ^ NIH Sourcebook "Archived re-create" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 5, 2012. Retrieved January xx, 2012. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived re-create as title (link)
  9. ^ "The top 10 institutions in biomedical sciences in 2018". Retrieved May 28, 2019.
  10. ^ "Introduction to the Nature Alphabetize". natureindex.com.
  11. ^ Harden, Victoria A. "WWI and the Ransdell Act of 1930". A Short History of the National Institutes of Health. Office Of History National Institutes Of Health, The states National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on September 7, 2011. Retrieved September 12, 2011.
  12. ^ "A Brusk History of the National Institutes of Health (one of 13)". history.nih.gov. Archived from the original on May 15, 2011. Retrieved May 25, 2011.
  13. ^ "SIC 9431 Administration of Public Health Programs". Referenceforbusiness.com. Archived from the original on May 10, 2011. Retrieved May 25, 2011.
  14. ^ a b c d eastward f NIH Almanac 2011, History: Chronology of Events: 1800– harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNIH_Almanac2011 (assist)
  15. ^ Harden, Victoria A.; Lyons, Michele (February 27, 2018). "NIH's Early Homes". NIH Intramural Inquiry Program . Retrieved December 13, 2020.
  16. ^ a b "Records of the Public Health Service [PHS], 1912-1968". National Archives. August 15, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  17. ^ Doyle, Henry N. (1977). "The federal industrial hygiene agency: a history of the Segmentation of Occupational Health, The states Public Health Service" (PDF). American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists . Retrieved September three, 2020. {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: url-condition (link)
  18. ^ a b c d Skloot, Rebecca (2010). The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. New York: Broadway Paperbacks.
  19. ^ "History of the National Cancer Found". National Cancer Establish – National Institutes of Health. March 18, 2015. Archived from the original on June 28, 2017. Retrieved June 29, 2017.
  20. ^ a b Laurie J. Cost (1992). "A Medical Anthropologist'south Ruminations on NIH Funding". Medical Anthropology Quarterly. New Series. half-dozen (2): 128–146. doi:10.1525/maq.1992.6.2.02a00030. JSTOR 649307.
  21. ^ "Historical Trends in Federal R&D". AAAS - The World'southward Largest Full general Scientific Society. June 11, 2013. Archived from the original on January ten, 2018.
  22. ^ "Online Instruction Kit: 1990: Launch of the Man Genome Project". National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) . Retrieved November 26, 2018.
  23. ^ "NIH Leadership". National Institutes of Health (NIH). October 31, 2014. Retrieved March 18, 2019. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  24. ^ "Kathryn M. Partin, Ph.D." National Institutes of Wellness. May 27, 2021.
  25. ^ "Division of Extramural Activities - Contacts". National Institutes of Health. May 28, 2021.
  26. ^ "Office of Ethics (OE) - Contacts". National Institutes of Wellness. June 17, 2009.
  27. ^ "Global Inquiry - Contacts". National Institutes of Health. Apr 26, 2021.
  28. ^ "Bayview Campus". nih.gov. May eight, 2013. Archived from the original on September 5, 2017. Retrieved May 7, 2018.
  29. ^ "NCI at Frederick: Almost the NCI at Frederick". ncifrederick.cancer.gov. Archived from the original on January x, 2018.
  30. ^ "Sectionalisation of Intramural Research Overview". National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. September one, 2010. Archived from the original on March viii, 2010. Retrieved September 15, 2015.
  31. ^ "Lasker Awards". National Institutes of Health (NIH). Feb v, 2016. Archived from the original on July 5, 2016.
  32. ^ Garland, Eva (2014). Winning SBIR/STTR Grants: A Ten Week Plan for Preparing Your NIH Phase I Application. ISBN978-1494784447.
  33. ^ "NIH Budget". National Institutes of Health. National Institutes of Health. May 23, 2011. Archived from the original on Baronial 26, 2011. Retrieved August 26, 2011.
  34. ^ "Estimates of Funding for Various Research, Condition, and Disease Categories (RCDC)". Enquiry Portfolio Online Reporting Tools. National Institutes of Wellness. March 15, 2011. Archived from the original on August xiii, 2011. Retrieved August 26, 2011.
  35. ^ National Institutes of Health. "NIH Public Admission Policy Details". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on November 1, 2011. Retrieved Jan xxx, 2014.
  36. ^ Suber, Peter (April 16, 2008). "An open access mandate for the National Institutes of Health". Open Medicine. ii (2): e39–41. PMC3090178. PMID 21602938.
  37. ^ "Members of new Interagency Pain Research Analogous Committee appear". nih.gov. Feb thirteen, 2012. Retrieved July xiii, 2019.
  38. ^ "The Benefits of Medical Enquiry and the Role of the NIH" (PDF). U.S. Joint Economical Committee. May 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2011.
  39. ^ Stevens, A. J.; Jensen, J. J.; Wyller, K.; Kilgore, P. C.; Chatterjee, S.; Rohrbaugh, Thousand. L. (2011). "The Role of Public-Sector Research in the Discovery of Drugs and Vaccines". New England Periodical of Medicine. 364 (six): 535–541. doi:ten.1056/NEJMsa1008268. PMID 21306239.
  40. ^ "NIH funding contributed to 210 approved drugs in recent years, study says". statnews.com. February 12, 2018. Archived from the original on March 22, 2018. Retrieved May 7, 2018.
  41. ^ Azoulay, Pierre; Graff Zivin, Joshua S.; Li, Danielle; Sampat, Bhaven N. (January 2015). "Public R&D Investments and Individual-sector Patenting: Evidence from NIH Funding Rules". NBER Working Paper No. 20889. doi:10.3386/w20889.
  42. ^ Palca, Joe (July 27, 2020). "COVID-19 Vaccine Candidate Heads To Widespread Testing In U.S." NPR. NPR.
  43. ^ Staff Writer (November 16, 2020). "Promising Interim Results from Clinical Trial of NIH-Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine". National Institutes of Health. U.S. Section of Health and Homo Services. Retrieved June 23, 2021.
  44. ^ "Fauci Was 'Untruthful' to Congress Well-nigh Wuhan Lab Research, New Documents Appear To Show". Newsweek. September 9, 2021.
  45. ^ "Wuhan, U.S. Scientists Planned to Brand Coronaviruses, Documents Leaked past Drastic Evidence". Newsweek. Oct eight, 2021.
  46. ^ "In Major Shift, NIH Admits Funding Risky Virus Inquiry in Wuhan". Vanity Fair. Oct 22, 2021.
  47. ^ "NIH says grantee failed to study experiment in Wuhan that created a bat virus that made mice sicker". Science. Oct 21, 2021.
  48. ^ "Fauci stands by gain-of-function research denials, defends collaboration with Wuhan lab". The Denver Gazette. October 24, 2021.
  49. ^ "NIH Presses U.S. Nonprofit for Information on Wuhan Virology Lab". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved June six, 2021.
  50. ^ "Appropriations". National Institutes of Health (NIH) . Retrieved March 17, 2019.
  51. ^ "Funding" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on March 4, 2016.
  52. ^ "Funding". Archived from the original on December vii, 2011.
  53. ^ Sabrina Tavernese (October ix, 2013). "Clinical Trials Continue, but Simply at a Crawl". New York Times. Archived from the original on November 4, 2017.
  54. ^ Neergaard, Lauran (October ix, 2013). "NIH admits a dozen critically ill, making exceptions to no-new-patient policy during shutdown". Huffington Mail service. The Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 1, 2017. Retrieved September 10, 2015.
  55. ^ "Authorities slimdown blocks some seeking NIH research handling". Fox News Channel. The Associated Press. October 2, 2013. Archived from the original on October five, 2013.
  56. ^ "Department of Wellness and Human Services Financial Year 2014 Contingency Staffing Programme for Operations in the Absence of Enacted Almanac Appropriations" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 28, 2013.
  57. ^ a b NIH Almanac 2011, History: Legislative Chronology: Funding harvnb fault: no target: CITEREFNIH_Almanac2011 (help)
  58. ^ NIH Almanac 2011, History: Chronology of Events: 1980– harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNIH_Almanac2011 (help)
  59. ^ NIH Appropriations (Department 1) Archived May 7, 2017, at the Wayback Auto and NIH Appropriations (Section 2) Archived January 5, 2018, at the Wayback Motorcar April 7, 2016, retrieved May 4, 2016, U.S. Section of Health and Human Service
  60. ^ a b "Funding" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February fifteen, 2013.
  61. ^ Office of Management and Budget America Kickoff. A Budget Blueprint to Brand America Great Again. Archived May four, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Budget of the Usa Government, Financial Twelvemonth 2018. Authorities Publishing Part, March xvi, 2017.65 pp
  62. ^ "NIH Funding: FY1994-FY2019" (PDF). Congressional Research Service . Retrieved March 17, 2017.
  63. ^ a b Lauer, Mike (May 31, 2016). "How Many Researchers?". Open up Mike. NIH. Archived from the original on August 25, 2016. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
  64. ^ Rockey, Sally (April 10, 2015). "Looking at Contempo Data on R21 and R01-equivalent Grants". Rock Talk. NIH. Archived from the original on October viii, 2016. Retrieved Oct ii, 2016.
  65. ^ a b "NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools (Study)". study.nih.gov. Archived from the original on February 2, 2018.
  66. ^ "Statement on Funding Resource allotment for Affliction Inquiry past Harold Varmus, M. D., Director, National Institutes of Health". Banana Secretary for Legislation, Department of Wellness and Human Services. May half-dozen, 1999.
  67. ^ "National Advisory Neurological Disorders and Stroke Council (NANDSC)". Ninds.nih.gov. Archived from the original on Apr 28, 2013. Retrieved April 28, 2013.
  68. ^ a b Rabin, Roni Caryn (May 14, 2014). "Labs Are Told to Outset Including a Neglected Variable: Females". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September vi, 2015. Retrieved September 10, 2015.
  69. ^ "Stakeholders". October 31, 2014. Archived from the original on November 25, 2011.
  70. ^ "Stakeholders". Archived from the original on Nov 14, 2011.
  71. ^ "Stakeholders". Archived from the original on November 4, 2016.
  72. ^ Karp PD, Sherlock Thousand, Gerlt JA, Sim I, Paulsen I, Babbitt PC, Laderoute K, Hunter L, Sternberg P, Wooley J, Bourne PE (2008). "Changes to NIH grant organization may backfire". Science. 322 (5905): 1187–8. doi:x.1126/science.322.5905.1187c. PMID 19023064. S2CID 47509185.
  73. ^ Costello LC (May 2010). "Perspective: is NIH funding the "all-time science by the best scientists"? A critique of the NIH R01 research grant review policies". Acad Med. 85 (5): 775–9. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181d74256. PMID 20520024.
  74. ^ "Appropriations Funding for National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Contract N01-AI-15416 With the University of California at San Francisco Audit (A-03-10-03120)" (PDF). June 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on Oct fifteen, 2011. Retrieved June 25, 2011.
    "Appropriations Funding for National Constitute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Contract N01-AI-3-0052 With Avecia Biologics Limited" (PDF). September 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on Oct 15, 2011. Retrieved October 9, 2011.
    "Appropriations Funding for National Constitute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Contract HHSN266-2006-00015C With NexBio, Inc" (PDF). September 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved Oct ix, 2011.
    "Appropriations Funding for National Constitute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Contract HHSN272-2008-00013C with the EMMES Corporation (A-03-ten-03115)" (PDF). October 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on June ii, 2013. Retrieved September xi, 2011.
    "Appropriations Funding for Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Plant of Child Wellness and Human Development Contract HHSN275-03-3345 With Westat, Inc. Inspect (A-03-10-03106)" (PDF). October 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on June i, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
    "Appropriations Funding for National Establish on Drug Abuse Contract HHSN271-2007-00009C with Charles River Laboratories, Inc. (A-03-x-03104)" (PDF). October 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on June two, 2013. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
    "Appropriations Funding for National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Contract HHSN266-2005-00022C With PPD Evolution, LP (Inspect A-03-10-03118)" (PDF). September 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 22, 2013. Retrieved September 26, 2012.
    "Appropriations Funding for National Constitute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Contract N01-AI-30068 With PPD Development, LP (Audit A-03-10-03116)" (PDF). September 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 22, 2013. Retrieved September 26, 2011.
  75. ^ Exercise a Google search for "NICHHD" (there are none) site:https://www.nichd.nih.gov/
  76. ^ "The NIH Directors". National Institutes of Health. Feb xi, 2015. Archived from the original on June ane, 2013.

External links [edit]

  • Official website Edit this at Wikidata
  • National Institutes of Wellness in the Federal Register
  • Regional Medical Programs Collection of data on NIH's Regional Medical Programs, from the National Library of Medicine

coulombewastry.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health

0 Response to "The National Institute for Media and the Family"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel